Translation is the act of giving meaning while converting from one language to another. In this article, we will explore the act of translation, it’s importance and the ethics and theories that shape it. Translated works in literature help in stitching two worlds together allowing readers to access voices, stories, and experiences that might otherwise remain unheard.

Let’s take the example of India – we pride ourselves on the diverse literary scenes this country has to offer as a home to more than twenty – two official languages (121 languages in total), innumerous dialects and accents. The practice of translation helps us in preserving and sharing the cultural wealth we live in. 

Susan Sontag, an American writer, aptly summarizes the importance of translation. She says that translation is the circulatory system of the world’s literatures, and it mirrors and duplicates the role of literature itself: To extend our sympathies, to educate the heart and mind, to secure and deepen the awareness that other people, people different from us, really do exist. In fact, International Translation Day is celebrated on 30th September each year to pay tribute to this discipline. 

Translation requires a deep understanding of the source language, which is the language of the original text and the target language into which the text will be translated. The concept of source and target language offers a view into the politics of language. Since most work is translated into the English language, it can be argued that English is a more powerful language than other languages. The fact that this blog is in the English language, too, adds to my argument about the politics of language. 

Thus, we can conclude that translation is not an easy task. Translators have a moral duty towards the work they are translating by remaining faithful to the writer’s voice. To infuse life in a work that already exists in a language it does not yet speak requires immense patience, hard work and the willingness of a writer. 

Translation has been around in academia since the second half of the 19th century. Throughout all these years, the field has evolved certain theories and ethics that have become a benchmark of doing a translation. We’ll first have a look at the theories and then the ethics.

Know more about 13 Awards in India for Translations here. 

Theories of translation: 

1. Sociolinguistic Theory: This theory posits that the social and cultural context in which the text was born decides which parts of the work will be translated and which will not. One such example is Omprakhash Valmiki’s work ‘Jhoothan’. If you translate it on its face value the word would be ‘leftover food’ and does not denote the weight it carries. That is why, even during its translation in English by Arun Prabha Mukherjee, the title has been retained.
   
   This choice by the translator preserves the true nature of the book which is to voice out the lived experience of a Dalit person. Language denotes the timelines of human history. If I use the word ‘Ghetto’ it invokes the imagery of the Jewish Holocaust in your mind. The sociolinguistic theory argues along the same lines, that language cannot be separated from its social and historical context. It means that the translator must account for these layers of meaning.  

2. Linguistic Approach: The linguistic approach focuses on identifying which words best denote a writer’s voice. A dictionary offers a translator a myriad of choices whose meanings are almost similar. Such as the meaning of all these words is the same: sad, blue, melancholia and sorrow. But look closely, there is nuance to each word and that can be the translator’s biggest problem or their most deliberate choice.
   
   Example: Nanak Singh’s work ‘Khooni Vaishaki’ was translated by his grandson Navdeep Suri. In the epilogue of the original work, there’s a line ‘Chittiyan dard diyan’ and the translator translated it as ‘Postcards of pain’. An alternate translation to this could be ‘Letters of sorrow’. Now, which of these options is better is open to debate.

3. Literary Approach: In this theory, the intention of the original author is carried forward and sometimes in order to do that a translator has to be unfaithful to words or syntax. It goes without saying that each text demands the application of a different theory. Let us understand this approach with the example of Daisy Rockwell’s translation of Geetanjali Shree’s work ‘Ret Samadhi’. The English translation of it is known as ‘Tomb of sand’.
   
   The duo had a hard time deciding the translation of the word ‘Samadhi’. In one of the earlier drafts, Geetanjali Shree expressed that the way she envisioned the term ‘tomb’ was something of a marble mausoleum. And that’s why Tomb of Sand was chosen as the title as it immediately piques the curiosity of the reader.

Watch Daisy Rockwell’s interview for the First Draft Club here. 

4. Semiotic Approach: Semiotic theory identifies which symbolisms and signs of a culture a translator needs to translate for the benevolence of the text. These signs can be universal in nature as such the good will attached to a ‘high five’ action or can be rooted in cultural understandings.
   
   Example: Premchand’s novel ‘Nirmala’ which centers around the life of a young girl who is forced into child marriage makes use of ‘Ghoonghat’. The translation of this word is ‘veil’ which does not do justice to the patriarchy attached with this action. Therefore, as a translator one can enhance the text by writing dialogues or lines that appropriately show the hierarchy.  

Ethics of translation: 

1. Accuracy: The basic goal of a work that is being translated is to accurately translate the meaning, tone and structure of the text. For instance, if one is translating a poem, then an accurate version of the work would involve following the same rhyme and meter of the original work no matter how much free verse might look like an easier way to deliver the meaning. One can assume that it is like creating a replication that is faithful in nature. 

2. Staying Objective and Neutral: Many theorists suggest that the translator’s voice should be an invisible presence and the focus should be to bring the original writer’s voice upfront. At times, the text may include views, dialogues, or values that the translator personally disagrees with or finds uncomfortable. However, it is essential to remember that the work ultimately belongs to the author, and the translator’s responsibility is to represent it faithfully rather than reshape it through their own perspective.

3. Cultural Sensitivity: Language and culture often go hand in hand, revealing themselves through each other. This is one of the difficult aspects of translation carrying not just the words, but the world they belong to. In Indian culture, the act of touching an elder’s feet is a way of showing respect. This is not just an action, but an understood social code. Any translator has to be mindful of these cultural productions while translating a work.

4. Contextual understanding of the text: Art is not produced in isolation. There is a trickle-down effect of all the personal experiences, good or bad that an artist carries to their work. Moreover, understanding the political, social and cultural landscape of when the text was produced helps access the mind of the writer. For instance, Sadat Hasan Manto’s work is mostly set during the Partition of India. So, if one is working on this writer, they should research about the Partition, visit museums and read interviews to understand the pulse of the nation. 

Watch Arunava Sinha’s interview for the First Draft Club here.

Conclusion

Translation is both a process and a product. It’s a creative act which requires immense stamina and a literary imagination. This discipline has finally received it’s much-awaited recognition, with institutions now solely dedicated to this craft, awards celebrating translators and Indian writers translated work owning the global stage. As it is with good things in life, there is only onwards and upwards from here.
Continue to learn about 22 publishers of transaltions here.